Management information system helped to create the concept of cloud computing. Amazon has already offered to rent their computers for complex calculations. Moreover, the company is going to concentrate efforts on this kind of earnings in the future, giving it the key priorities. Amazon was engaged in renting its computing power as early as Feb 02, · Annotated Bibliography Annotated Bibliographies (Purdue University Online Writing Lab--OWL) (Wellesley College Project on Social Computing) Re: Your Recent Email to Your Professor (Inside Higher Ed) (The Write Place at St. Cloud State University) Personal Statement/Application Essay Application Essays The history of computing hardware covers the developments from early simple devices to aid calculation to modern day blogger.com the 20th century, most calculations were done by humans. Early mechanical tools to help humans with digital calculations, like the abacus, were referred to as calculating machines or calculators (and other proprietary names)
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The history of computing hardware covers the developments from early simple devices to aid calculation to modern day computers. Before the 20th century, most calculations were done by humans. Early mechanical tools to help humans with digital calculations, like the abacuswere referred to as calculating machines or calculators and other proprietary names.
The machine operator was called the computer. The first aids to computation were purely mechanical devices which required the operator to set up the initial values of an elementary arithmetic operation, then manipulate the device to obtain the result, cloud computing annotated bibliography.
Later, computers represented numbers in a continuous form e. distance along a scale, rotation of a shaft, or a voltage.
Numbers could also be represented in the form of digits, automatically manipulated by a mechanism. Although this approach generally cloud computing annotated bibliography more complex mechanisms, cloud computing annotated bibliography, it greatly increased the precision of cloud computing annotated bibliography. The development of transistor technology and then the integrated circuit chip led to a series of breakthroughs, starting with transistor computers and then integrated circuit computers, causing digital computers to largely replace analog computers.
Metal-oxide-semiconductor MOS large-scale integration LSI then enabled semiconductor memory and the microprocessorleading to another key breakthrough, the miniaturized personal computer PCin the s.
The cost of computers gradually became so low that personal computers by the s, and then mobile computers smartphones and tablets in the s, became ubiquitous. Devices have been used to aid computation for thousands of years, mostly using one-to-one correspondence with fingers. The earliest counting device was probably a form of tally stick. The Lebombo bone from the mountains between Swaziland and South Africa may be the oldest known mathematical artifact. which represented counts of items, probably livestock or grains, sealed in hollow unbaked clay containers.
The abacus was early used for arithmetic tasks. What we now call the Roman abacus was used in Babylonia as early as c. Since then, many other forms of reckoning boards or tables have been invented. In a medieval European counting housecloud computing annotated bibliography, a checkered cloth would be placed on a table, and markers moved around on it according to certain rules, as an aid to calculating sums of money. Several analog computers were constructed in ancient and medieval times to perform astronomical calculations.
These included the astrolabe and Antikythera mechanism from the Hellenistic world c. AD ; the equatorium and universal latitude-independent astrolabe by Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī c. AD ; the astronomical analog computers of other medieval Muslim astronomers and engineers; and the astronomical clock tower of Su Song during the Song dynasty.
The castle clocka hydropowered mechanical astronomical clock invented by Ismail al-Jazari inwas the first programmable analog computer. This idea was taken up by Leibniz centuries later, and is thus one of the founding elements in computing and information science. Scottish mathematician and physicist John Napier discovered that the multiplication and division of numbers could be performed by the addition and subtraction, respectively, of the logarithms of those numbers.
While producing the first logarithmic tables, Napier needed to perform many tedious multiplications. It was at this point that he designed his ' Napier's bones ', cloud computing annotated bibliography abacus-like device that greatly simplified calculations that involved multiplication and division.
Since real numbers can be represented as distances or intervals on a line, the slide rule was invented in the s, shortly after Napier's work, to allow multiplication and division operations to be carried out significantly faster than was previously possible. His device greatly simplified arithmetic calculations, including multiplication and division. William Oughtred greatly improved this in with his circular slide rule. He followed this up with the modern slide rule inessentially a combination of two Gunter rulesheld together with the hands.
Slide rules were used by generations of engineers and other mathematically involved professional workers, until the invention of the pocket calculator. Wilhelm Schickardcloud computing annotated bibliography, a German polymathdesigned a calculating machine in which combined cloud computing annotated bibliography mechanised form of Napier's rods with the world's first mechanical adding machine built into the base. Because it made use of a single-tooth gear there were circumstances in which its carry mechanism would jam.
Inwhile still a teenager, Blaise Pascal started some pioneering work on calculating machines and after three years of effort and 50 prototypes cloud computing annotated bibliography he invented a mechanical calculator. Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz invented the stepped reckoner and his famous stepped drum mechanism around He attempted to create a machine that could be used not only for addition and subtraction but would utilise a moveable carriage to enable long multiplication and division.
Leibniz once said "It is unworthy of excellent men to lose hours like slaves in the labour of calculation which could safely be relegated to anyone else if machines were used. Leibniz also described the binary numeral system[23] a central ingredient of all modern computers. However, up to the s, many subsequent designs including Charles Babbage 's machines of the and even ENIAC of were based on the decimal system. AroundCharles Xavier Thomas de Colmar created what would over the rest of the century become the first successful, mass-produced mechanical calculator, the Thomas Arithmometer.
It could be used to add and subtract, cloud computing annotated bibliography, and with a moveable carriage the operator could also multiply, and divide by a process of long multiplication and long division. Mechanical calculators remained in use until the s. InFrench weaver Joseph Marie Jacquard developed a loom in which the pattern being woven was controlled by a paper tape constructed from punched cards.
The paper tape could be changed without changing the mechanical design of the loom. This was a landmark achievement in programmability. His machine was an improvement over similar weaving looms. Punched cards were preceded by punch bands, as in the machine proposed by Basile Bouchon. These bands would inspire information recording for automatic pianos and more recently numerical control machine tools.
In the late s, the American Herman Hollerith invented data storage on punched cards that could then cloud computing annotated bibliography read by a machine, cloud computing annotated bibliography. His machines used electromechanical relays and counters. That census was processed two years faster than the prior census had been. Byelectromechanical tabulating machines could add, subtract, and print accumulated totals.
When the United States instituted Social Security inIBM punched-card systems were used to process records of 26 million workers, cloud computing annotated bibliography. Leslie Comrie 's articles on punched-card methods and W. Eckert 's publication of Punched Card Methods in Scientific Computation indescribed punched-card techniques sufficiently advanced to solve some differential equations [30] or perform multiplication and division using floating point representations, all on punched cards and unit record machines.
Such machines were used during World War II for cryptographic statistical processing, as well as a vast number of administrative uses. Cloud computing annotated bibliography Astronomical Computing Bureau, Columbia Universityperformed astronomical calculations representing the state of the art in computing.
By the 20th century, cloud computing annotated bibliography, earlier mechanical calculators, cash registers, accounting machines, and so on were redesigned to use electric motors, with gear position as the representation for the state of a variable. The word "computer" was a job title assigned to primarily cloud computing annotated bibliography who used these calculators to perform mathematical calculations.
Companies like FridenMarchant Calculator and Monroe made desktop mechanical calculators from the s that could add, subtract, multiply and divide. It was a small, hand-cranked mechanical calculator and as such, a descendant of Gottfried Leibniz 's Stepped Reckoner and Thomas 's Arithmometer. The world's first all-electronic desktop calculator was the British Bell Punch ANITAreleased in The ANITA sold well since it was the only electronic desktop calculator available, cloud computing annotated bibliography, and was silent and quick.
The tube technology was superseded in June by the U. manufactured Friden EC, which had an all-transistor design, a stack of four digit numbers displayed on a 5-inch 13 cm CRTand introduced reverse Polish notation RPN. Charles Babbagean English mechanical engineer and polymathoriginated the concept of a programmable computer. Considered the " father of the computer ", [38] he conceptualized and invented the first mechanical computer in the early 19th century.
After working on his revolutionary difference enginedesigned to aid in navigational calculations, in he realized that a much more general design, an Analytical Enginewas possible. The input of programs and data was to be provided to the machine via punched cardsa method cloud computing annotated bibliography used at the time to direct mechanical looms such as the Jacquard loom. For cloud computing annotated bibliography, the machine would have a printer, a curve plotter and a bell.
The machine would also be able to punch numbers onto cards to be read in later. It employed ordinary base fixed-point arithmetic. The Engine incorporated an arithmetic logic unitcontrol flow in the form of conditional branching and loopsand integrated memorymaking it the first design for a general-purpose computer that could be described in modern terms as Turing-complete. There was to be a store, or memory, capable of holding 1, numbers of 40 decimal digits each ca.
An arithmetical unitcalled the "mill", would be able to perform all four arithmetic operationsplus comparisons and optionally square roots, cloud computing annotated bibliography. Initially it was conceived as a difference engine curved back upon itself, in a generally circular layout, [41] with the long store exiting off to one side, cloud computing annotated bibliography.
Later drawings depict a regularized grid layout. The programming language to be employed by users was akin to modern day assembly languages, cloud computing annotated bibliography. Loops and conditional branching were possible, and so the language as cloud computing annotated bibliography would have been Turing-complete as later defined by Alan Turing. Three different types of punch cards were used: one for arithmetical operations, one for numerical constants, and one for load and store operations, transferring numbers from the store to the arithmetical unit or back.
There were three separate readers for the three types of cards. Cloud computing annotated bibliography machine was about a century ahead of its time. However, the project was slowed by various problems including disputes with the chief machinist building parts for it. All the parts for his machine had to be made by hand—this cloud computing annotated bibliography a major problem for a machine with thousands of parts. Eventually, cloud computing annotated bibliography, the project was dissolved with the decision of the British Government to cease funding.
Babbage's failure to complete the analytical engine can be chiefly attributed to difficulties not only of politics and financing, but also to his desire to develop an increasingly sophisticated computer and to move ahead faster than anyone else could follow. Ada Lovelace translated and added notes to the " Sketch of the Analytical Engine " by Luigi Federico Menabrea. This appears to be the first published description of programming, cloud computing annotated bibliography, so Ada Lovelace is widely regarded as the first computer programmer.
Following Babbage, although unaware of his earlier work, was Percy Ludgatea clerk to a corn merchant in Dublin, Ireland. He independently designed a programmable mechanical computer, which he described in a work that was published in In the first half of the 20th century, analog computers were considered by many to be the future of computing, cloud computing annotated bibliography.
These devices used the continuously changeable aspects of physical phenomena such as electricalmechanicalor hydraulic quantities to model the problem being solved, in contrast to digital computers that represented varying quantities symbolically, as their numerical values change.
As an analog computer does not use discrete values, but rather continuous values, processes cannot be reliably repeated with exact equivalence, as they can with Turing machines.
The first modern analog computer was a tide-predicting machineinvented by Cloud computing annotated bibliography William Thomsonlater Lord Kelvin, in It used a system of pulleys and wires to automatically calculate predicted tide levels for a set period at a particular location and was of great utility to navigation in shallow waters. His device was the foundation for further developments in analog computing.
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